What Guides Ethical Decision Making Essay Example for Free

What Guides Ethical Decision Making Essay A processor manufacturing company who are currently facing financial troubles completed an order about three months ago for newly designed high-powered processors that are smaller than and four times as powerful as its predecessor. These processors are to be placed into cutting edge cellular phones by a leading cellular phone manufacturer whose release date is a mere month away. A design inconsistency was recently discovered that essentially meant that the processors would work but would be no more powerful than its predecessor in certain conditions. A flaw that would only to be discerned when extraordinary load was placed on the device component whilst it was exposed to ambient temperatures of over 85 degrees Fahrenheit. The company’s CEO is now faced with the difficult decision of either doing nothing or replacing all the processors. Doing nothing, allows the company to keep its doors open, grants access to potential future earnings and saves the jobs of over 1000 employees. A decision that clearly seeks to ensure the common good of the company by giving them the ability to remain competitive while remaining silent on an issue that poses substantial risks to the cellular phone manufacturers earnings and reputation. The alternative, replacing all the processors would undoubtedly ensure that the processors function as advertised, but doing so would be at a significant cost to the company and may likely result in massive downsizing or the company’s declaration of insolvency. Though this option speaks positively to the moral character of the company, it may also lead to the company’s demise and leave over 1000 employees jobless. Both decisions, in light of the situation presented, may be considered to be ethical. A predicament which may undoubtedly lead a person to question how does one choose between several ethical options and more importantly what exactly guides this choice. The answer to these questions can be found in a branch of philosophy called theoretical ethics. Theoretical ethics is the rational reflection on what is right, what is wrong, what is just, what is unjust, what is good, and what is bad in terms of human behaviour according to [https://www.boundless.com/marketing /textbooks/boundless-marketing-textbook/social-responsibility-ethics-in-marketing-16/ethics-an-overview-101/definition-  of-ethics-498-8310/]. This branch of philosophy is exercised via the application the application of ethical theory. Ethical theories are those that represent the grand ideas which guide ethical principles and systematically attempt to answer the fundamental practical ethical questions [Ethical Theories http://www.medindia.net/education/familymedicine/biomedical-ethics-theories.htm#ixzz3H84Tlgi3] Ethical theories can be categorized according to how they justify ethical judgments [https://ethics.journalism.wisc.edu/resources/ethics-in-a-nutshell/#theoretical ] and as such the particular ethical theory utilized can influence the decision made. This essay will therefore seek to examine the concepts of the common good and moral character and fundamental human virtue, their supportive ethical theories and explain how they are applied to making ethical decisions in businesses. Common Good Also referred to as the human good, public good or commonweal, the concept of the common good is one that has evolved over time. As human society developed, so too did the concept, as articulated by the philosophers of the day. Originating with the Greek Philosopher Aristotle who, on the topic wrote â€Å"Every skill and every enquiry, and similarly every action and rational choice, is thought to aim at some good; and so the good has been aptly described as that at which everything aims†. He went on to reason that â€Å"since political science employs the other sciences, and also lays down the laws about what we should do and refrain from, its end will include the ends of the others, and will therefore be the human good.† http://catdir.loc.gov/catdir/samples/cam032/99036947.pdf . Aristotle firstly explained his idea of the good, which according to his writings can then be understood to mean the purpose, reason, desire or benefit of things and actions. The idea of the good sets the premise for understanding the human good, the good that yields the most benefit to human existence. The human good, in Aristotle’s view, was the science of politics since it was the science charged with managing all other sciences and their respective ends for a single purpose; the betterment of the polity. The underlying premise of Aristotle’s definition of the common good is utility. It involves a multiplicity of agents working towards a single shared purpose that would  satisfy or be of benefit to all involved. This single purpose, shared by many, for the benefit of many is therefore what is understood to be the common good; a concept that shares an ideal that is similar to utilitarian theory as developed by Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mills. UTILITARIANISM AND THE COMMON GOOD The basic premise of utilitarianism is the achievement of happiness for the greatest sum of people [ethics in action Domenec Mele]. This principle places the interest of the many over the interest of the few and as such the rightness or wrongness of an act is based only on the perceived or expected outcomes of that act as it relates to the utility obtained. http://caae.phil.cmu.edu/cavalier/80130/part2/sect9.html Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mills were the main proponents of this ideology, and though they had differing views on which outcome of act (happiness vs. pleasure) was worth measuring in order to determine the rightness or wrongness of an act they both held that human wellbeing was salient. http://caae.phil.cmu.edu/cavalier/80130/part2/sect9.html Utilitarianism can be considered to be an ethical theory. It represents a grand idea; achievement of maximum utility for most, and at the same time, assesses the rightness or wrongness of an action through the lenses of this idea. The utilitarian principle can therefore be used to ethically guide or judge the ethicality of decisions and actions. Utilitarianism as an ethical theory acts in pursuance to the common good https://philosophynow.org/issues/64/Presidential_Decision-Making_Utilitarianism_vs_Duty_Ethics . As previously expressed, a single purpose, shared by many, for the benefit of many is therefore what is understood to be the common good. This concept is similar to utilitarianism as is evident by the mutual aim of achieving maximum utility for many. As such, decisions and actions resulting from utilitarian theory are made based on the consequences of those decision and actions, and how they affect majority with an aim to always increase utility. Utilitarianism as a theory may then be seen as the tool through which the common good may be achieved. https://philosophynow.org/issues/64/Presidential_Decision-Making_Utilitarianism_vs_Duty_Ethics COMMON GOOD OF BUSINESSES The theories of the common good and utilitarianism although initially conceptualized on a societal scale are also applicable to smaller groups that occur within society. Both concepts are formulated purely on the idea that it is best to achieve utility for the majority of stakeholders and as such the size of the group is not an important attribute for consideration when applying these ideas. Utilitarian as a theory and the common good as a concept can therefore be viewed as reducible and as such be applied to virtually any group in society including a business. The common good of a business is to seek particular goods through its activities http://www.iese.edu/es/files/Paper_Antonio%20Argando%C3%B1a_tcm5-36013.pdf . These goods are extrinsic, intrinsic and transcendent in nature and are used to provide utility to stakeholders by satisfying their needs http://www.iese.edu/research/pdfs/DI-0777-E.pdf . These goods are interdependent of each other, but through their collective contributions, work towards the achievement of the vision and mission of a business. The vision and mission of a business may then be considered to be that business’s common good [domenec mele bookl]. Interestingly however, a business seeking its own common good also works towards the common good of society [domenec mele bookl]. As suggested by Adam Smith’s metaphor of the invisible hand, a business in pursuit of its own interests tends to also promote the good of society as a whole [domenec mele bookl]. Therefore the activities of a business: 1. creating added economic value with justice and distributing it with equity 2. supplying useful goods and services efficiently and fairly 3. providing jobs, opportunities and organizational conditions in accordance with human dignity and human rights 4. Promoting the necessary relationships between the firm and its constitutive stakeholders, fostering rec iprocity, collaboration and cooperation among them 5. Striving for the continuity and sustainability of the firm and 6. being a good corporate citizen  may be viewed as contributing to not only its own common good but also to the common good of society. [domenec mele bookl] COMMON GOOD DECISION MAKING IN A BUSINESS A common good decision in a business is any decision that is pursuant its own common good and, at the same time, is aimed at achieving maximum utility for  the majority of stakeholders. This type of decision making applies a mission driven approach to corporate governance where the organization is seen as one entity that achieves multiple ends. In applying this approach the corporate governing body weighs the positive and negative consequences of an action with an aim towards increasing overall utility for the many with the business’s vision and mission as its main goal [domenec mele]. It would then stand to reason that a common good business decision would be any decision that is utilitarian in nature, which is also in accordance with any of the 6 mentioned activities of a business. Common good business decisions are made through the application of utilitarian theory. Utilitarian theory provides a straightforward method for making decisions that would provide the greatest benefits and the least harm to the business. To arrive at such a decision, one must firstly identify the each of the various options that can be chosen http://www.sme.ie/articles/business_ethics/thinking_ethically.pdf . After the options are identified, the foreseeable benefits and harms that may result from each option are determined http://www.sme.ie/articles/business_ethics/thinking_ethically.pdf . Lastly, one compares the options and chooses the option that provides the greatest benefits and the least amount of harm to the business http://www.sme.ie/articles/business_ethics/thinking_ethically.pdf . In the utilitarian view, an option chosen via this ethical theory is considered to be morally right http://www.sme.ie/articles/business_ethics/thinking_ethically.pdf and is therefore ethical. This decision making process may be likened to the cost benefit analysis, a commonly used business decision making tool. Although one may arrive at ethical decisions through the application of utilitarian theory, there are several disadvantages of using this ethical theory. Utilitarianism suggests that the decision maker assigns values to benefits and harms and subsequently compares these benefits and harms, this makes the utilitarian decision making process highly subjective http://www.sme.ie/articles/business_ethics/thinking_ethically.pdf . Predicting all the consequences of an action is difficult and as such it is possible that consequences which may cause great benefit or harm to the business are not factored into the decision making process. This method also, ignores the concept of justice and as such may cause several  particular groups to be repeatedly disadvantaged for the betterment of the organization. Because of the critiques of this ethical theory it can be reasoned tha t it is best used in situations that are amoral or situations where the rightness or wrongness of a decision is not in question. An example or an ideal amoral situation is a situation where all the available options are moral. The application of this ethical approach in such situations removes the need for the consideration of justice and therefore addresses a major flaw of the utilitarian process. MORAL CHARACTER AND FUNDAMENTAL HUMAN VIRTUES Another concept that informs ethical decision making is moral character and fundamental human virtues. The idea of Moral character and virtues has always been a prominent topic of philosophical discussion among ancient philosophers. The foundation of these discussions was centralized in the goodness of humans and in particular, trying to discern what makes a person good http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/moral-character/ . As such, a person’s character became the logical starting point in the resolution of this issue http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/moral-character/#WhyChaMat . One’s traits and actions is what determines one’s character. Character, which is understood to mean the assemblage of qualities that distinguishes one individual from another http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/moral-character/#WhyChaMat is comprised of the relatively stable traits or behaviours that a person consistently exhibits. Although all of these traits are not moral nature, they may have a significant impact on a person’s moral characterhttp://www.iep.utm.edu/moral-ch/#SH1a . A person’s Moral Character is influenced by moral character traits and practical wisdom. A moral character trait is a disposition of character for which a person is morally responsible or is deserving of the resultant reactive attitudes. http://www.iep.utm.edu/moral-ch/#SH1a. Virtues, traits that are deserving of positive reactive attitudes such as praise or gratitude and vices, traits that are deserving of negative reactive attitudes, when combined with proper reasoning about the matter at hand, collectively inform moral character http://www.iep.utm.edu/moral-ch/#SH1a. In other words; virtues, vices and by extension moral character is not only influenced by the disposition of  character, but also by practical wisdom. http://www.iep.utm.edu/moral-ch/#SH1a Practical wisdom is an intellectual virtue that is required for the development of virtues of character. This intellectual virtue is acquired through learning general rules and practice. Throughout the course of one’ s life, we encounter situations that require reasoning to determine what actions are appropriate. It is through these experiences that practical wisdom is developed. Practical wisdom, when combined with â€Å"proper habits† fuels the development of virtues such as justice, courage and temperance. [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-ethics/] Justice, courage and temperance are virtues which provide us with the interior strength to act well [domenec mele]. Justice governs relationships and it regulates one’s inclination to possess, to share and to give whilst, courage, the virtue of preserving or pursuing what is good despite the obstacles, regulates one’s inclination to overcome the obstacles to doing â€Å"good†. Lastly temperance regulates one’s inclination towards pleasure and is that virtue which provides self-mastery and avoidance of immoderate attachments [domenec mele]. These virtues each have common characteristics of providing a self-regulatory feature and encouraging behaviours that are in keeping with human excellence. As such, these virtues are considered to be fundamental [domenec mele]. FUNDAMENTAL VIRTUES AND DEONTOLOGY The theory of deontology states we are morally obligated to act in accordance with a certain set of principles and rules regardless of outcome. Deontological theories holds that some acts are always wrong, even if the act leads to an admirable outcome and as such, in deontology the morality of an action is judged without regard for the outcome of that action. Deontology is based on the view of the human being having the unique capacity for rationality and it is exactly this ability that requires human beings to act in accordance with moral law or duty. http://sevenpillarsinstitute.org/morality-101/kantian-duty-based-deontological-ethics In the deontological view, morality and moral character is primarily a function of acting in accordance with duties or obligations, regardless of the consequences of acting in accordance with those duties http://www.iep.utm.edu/moral-ch/ . Deontological theory goes on to apply  this categorical imperative to making all decision â€Å"Act only on that maxim whereby thou canst at the same time will that it should become a universal law† http://caae.phil.cmu.edu/Cavalier/80130/part2/sect8.html . This categorical imperative is Kant’s only guideline to making decisions. Simply explained it states that one should decide on an action only if they agree that everyone else should perform that action in all the time. To be able to act in accordance with duty, fundamental virtues are required. Duties may be either perfect (precise, specifiable and enforceable) or imperfect (unspecific and unenforceable) in nature. Perfect duties require that one forgoes certain actions in order to be able to act in accordance with such a duty. Imperfect duties on the other hand, are duties to adopt certain ends and because of its unenforceable nature require self-mastery and strength of will. Continence therefore becomes a necessity for acting in accordance with duty. http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/moral-character/#Kan Continence or self-control requires the exercise of virtues, namely those of practical wisdom, temperance, courage and justice. http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/nicomachaen.7.vii.html MORAL CHARACTER OF COMPANIES The ideas of moral character and fundamental virtues, though originally conceptualized to examine the ‘goodness’ of a person, can also be expanded to analyse the moral character of groups particularly businesses. Moral character is assessed as previously indicated by evaluating a person’s commitment to virtues or exercise of duty. The same method of assessment can be applied to a business. The moral character of a company may be determined through its duty based activities. The perfect duties of a company are those to which it is legally obligated whereas its imperfect duties deals are those where the company isn’t legally obligated but are duty bond to adopt particular ends. As such, the company’s adherence to the laws of the land, how the company treats with contractual agreements, examination of the company’s ethical policy or code and review of the company’s decision to ensure that they are in accordance with the company’s duties are the factors that influence the moral character of a company.

Impact of Computer Technology

Impact of Computer Technology Computer Technology I am using and how Im using it? Computer technology starts from the time you wake in the morning, your alarm on your phone to the cup of coffee brewing. Computer technology has come a long way from when I was a child. Lots of us now have house alarms, electric toothbrushes, plasma televisions, Xboxes, I pad, tablets, laptops all these to interact with loved ones across the globe. These devices also encourage our children to interact on line with a wide variety of people in various occupations example the international space station through Facebook. Or Skype family and friends in Australia or New Zealand. Another feature I find good is the various apps on Facebook that allows you to check in during disasters to allow family and friends to know your safe. Other devices are used to check on our health blood pressure monitors is one I have checked every 6 months along with the nebuliser used when I suffer an asthma attack. Advantage of computer technology? Computer technology has changed the way we live considerably, our life expectancy has increased. This is down to all the new medical devices available and procedures people can have to prolong lives. Every day we hear of newer devices coming on the market whether it be for the weather devices, food industry or weapons, medical devices, aircraft, drones or I robot technology. Some are extremely helpful helping toward our survival on this planet. Weather devices help track hail, rain, snow, frost, heatwaves. Society has a better understanding of different cultures all at the touch of a button thanks to the companies that are committed to researching and updating Google being one of many.   Medical devices have improved over the years with cat scans, x ray machines including portal ones, from the largest to the smallest something as tiny as a wireless device. With the wide variety of technologies some are quiet complex but provide much needed support both in hospital setting to home s upport. Assistive technologies include mobility wheelchairs and aides, sensory hearing aids. Common aids being manufactured over the last number of years include bionic arms, legs and hands. As a lot of these are used in war torn areas. Home care has seen an increase of features to improve daily living for family members IV equipment, ventilators, hoists and specialised beds are commonly used in homes are care facilities. Freeing up hospital beds. There is a lot more medical technology out there this report names just some of them. Disadvantages of Computer Technology? Cyber Bullying is a major issue. Social skills are affected as people forget how to talk to one another. Social aspect of meeting new people has totally changed as has dating and clubbing. Letter writing has become a thing of the past. People have become addicted to online gambling and games. Public life impacts? Medical ID bracelets, medical apps on your mobile phones come in handy if you have a medical condition. This sort of devices can help save your life or those around you. New hips, knee replacements. Give the clients a new lease of life, thus helping families ensuring the family member stays out of care facilities. Private impact on life? Public and private are very much the same as the goals are all the save to help improve the quality of life for our loved ones. Current developments? Weather systems are still being produced, although yet no earth quake system has been produced yet. Google are producing new and exciting gadgets every day along with faster information. Research for new medicines is ongoing with the different research companies. Medical drones are used in war torn countries around the world. I Robots are in production to assist in treatments where disease has broken out. Gadgets for fun gps golf watches, watches to measure heart rate, blood pressure. Medical devices help improve lives of everyone. X-Ray, Vein visualisation technology, joint replacement, morphine pumps, incubators, cat scans many more. Entertainment television, news, educational documentaries, YouTube covers music, live feeds, life. Food industry improvements on farmers tractors, combis, growing technics. Digital diagnostics makes health care more accessible. Cloud is used in under developed countries for information. Wearables- Fitness trackers, smart watches another example is Intel teamed up with the Michael j. fox foundation to see if their wearable technology could pin point certain Parkinson disease. (Irish Computer science 2017) Health Formatics electron files, information stored in hospital data. Digital therapy Well frame combines mobile technology and AI (artificial intelligence) provides care for when clients return home. This technology tracks diet, exercise and its a GPS system. Catering to mental health clients, cardiovascular. Hackathons lots of the medical devices wouldnt be readily available if it wasnt for hackathons. Many of these devices were requested for other projects. Software developed, hardware inventions all came about through Hackathons. Safety, Health and Welfare Act 2005 Sets out provisions within the safety health and welfare act 2005 as set in legislation that the employer must. Carry carry out a risk assessment. Provide a safety standard for all equipment, chemicals within the premises. Must provide provisions for training for these equipment, chemicals and induction as part of an ongoing programme. Must inform all people staff, visitors, workmen anyone who enters the premises of the safety statement. Data protection legislation 2003. Data protection is your right to privacy. We also have the right to access data and have it corrected if its not correct or misinformed. Our data is protected once we give our details to certain companies under the data act 2003. Freedom of information act 2003. The freedom of information act 2003 allows us to access records held by the government departments and some public bodies. This is ensuring that charities must provide public records of all donations and how the money is spent. Defamation act 2009? This was changed from libel and slander to defamation to keep up with technology example Facebook and the easy access people have with sharing stuff. So, if I posted on Facebook that one of my neighbours was selling drugs and she wasnt but I didnt name her. But I had given out enough details for people to know who I meant thats defamation. Example neighbour wears black everything thinks shes a vampire with the gothic look. Well then, her employer the bank manager go AIB were to hear of this he suspended her until further notice.

Examining Intergroup Relations from different angles

Examining Intergroup Relations from different angles Intergroup relations started to take form in understanding individual characteristics from the beginning of the twentieth century. The theory of intergroup relations for individual, group, intergroup, and organizational relations defines boundaries, power, cognition, and leadership behaviors. Intergroup relations can be examined from so many different angles. There is even a wide variety of areas of study that have theories into a multitude of issues concerning intergroup relations. However, with the array of research into intergroup relations, narrowing down the topic of research to social psychology, and studying the characteristic, and behavior will be sufficient enough to have a wide range of understanding into group and individual behavior. Certain perceptions can be developed toward a group member or members  involving negative or positive intergroup relations, such as: social categorization, stereotypes, intergroup bias, motivations, prejudices, and the functional relationsh ip process within a group. INTRODUCTION TO INTERGROUP RELATIONS What is the meaning behind intergroup relations? Why is it so widely studied in social psychology? These are questions that are asked when analyzing the meaning of intergroup relations. To better understand intergroup relations you first have to dive into where it all began and how the term was discovered. In the 1960s and 1970s social psychologists began studying individuals and social interaction. The study of group dynamics proved to be unsuccessful and expensive, so they decided to research the dynamic on a smaller scale by breaking down individuals rather than placing them in larger social structures for their research. However, this setting failed and the setting became inaccurate. As time went on though, investigation of group dynamics was not a dead topic. The research into intergroup relations was yet again opened up for study in the 1980s and 1990s, but this time investigation into human behavior in a group setting (Johnson Johnson, 2009). The numbers of issues found were: cooperation, conflict resolution, distributive justice, intergroup relations, and cross cultural interactions. This was a major step in research for group and individual behavior among a group setting. It was then a doorway to other fields for research that ultimately became one of the most dominated areas of study on group dynamics. Intergroup relations in simpler terms can be described as feelings, evaluations, beliefs and behaviors that groups and members may have toward one another. It can have both positive and negative impacts among those individuals that are among the group or outside their group. The psychological process that is associated with intergroup relations among many is social categorization. This can be described as the personalities, motivations of group members, observations, and the practical relationship between groups and those outside groups. SOCIAL CATEGORIZATION Social Categorization is a fundamental part of intergroup relations. It involves identifying people that are within your group and those that our outside of your group members. The theory behind social categorization arises from the earlier work of Tajfel of social identity theory. By evaluating an individuals self-image for which they perceive him or herself; these aspects can also contribute positively or negatively as well when defining their group identity with we or us as one would with me or I. Social categorization is social perception that involves relating to those within your group and discriminating against those that are not in your group. This can cause conflict when one relates with their individual self image to their own group and then having to work with others that are outside of your group members. When relating yourself characteristic and building a trusting relationship with those within your group, members tend to view others more negatively when others from the outside are brought into your group; even if those from the outside have similar characteristics of your own. Once group membership has been established people distinguish individuals who are members as the in-group and those who are members of other group as the out-group (Dovidio, April 21, 1990). When intergroup boundaries between out-group and in-group have been pronounced people tend to discriminate against the out-group than those in their in-group. People then attribute more strongly to their in-group, and then in turn favor and contribute more toward their group. This is because ones self-esteem is more enhanced in their own group than in different group memberships. When different groups are not interdependent and group memberships are thrown together; intergroup biases are produced. INTERGROUP BIAS Intergroup bias generally defines the members (the in-group) to be more favorable to their own group than to the non-members (the out-group). Bias can cause such behavior such as: discrimination, stereo-typing, and prejudice. This essentially means that trust is turned over to the in-group and not given to the out-group. Individuals tend to give more to their own group than relinquishing those rewards to members of other groups. When social identity is developed among members in a group, it is hard for those members to be able to reach out and identify with outside group members. Once a trust line has been established it is difficult to create non derogation towards the out-group (Dovidio, April 21, 1990). In order to decrease intergroup bias is to make group members aware of the consequences that surround this behavior. Or by placing groups with other groups on more of a daily basis in order to establish less competition and less trust issues among others. By taking out the element that can cause intergroup bias can help those participating in a group environment to see that each member, whether in their group or others, are key factors to being successful. Being able to observe others culture, style and individual character without discriminating from the beginning will help each member find balance in their group and others they become involved in. No one group is better than the other. Each has separate tools that can make the ease of intergroup relations work victoriously. GROUP CULTURE When evaluating group dynamics in intergroup relations one benefit, as stated, is the culture and style that each individual will bring such as: the history and common ancestry, as well as cultural characteristics. But when viewing culture as it relates to intergroup bias, groups that are involved in intercultural encounters tend to run into conflicts due to sociocultural adaptation. The more different the languages, family structures, religion, standard of living and values of the two groups, the more cultural distance there will be between these groups. With these cultural characteristics and cultural distance that is placed in groups it can have a tendency to take shape as ethnocentrism where one ethnic group views their culture as better than another. When ethnocentrism is present we measure our culture based on others of different ethnicity. This is derived from the cultural conditioning that each individual has encountered as children. Children are typically raised to fit into particular cultures and sometimes when individuals are conditioned we see others ethnic background in a more negative light than positive (Messick Mackie, 1989). Groups tend to place distance between those that are of different in cultural background because they perceive them with dissimilarity to their own culture. Sometimes, it is difficult for groups to adapt to those with greater cultural dissimilarities. It is important for those placed in groups to be able to learn more about each individuals own interaction styles, and be able to set structure within those group to have a higher success rate in their groups. When structuring a groups interaction styles and applying everyones cultural differences; you can take those differences and use them to benefit a higher success rate. Being able to learn and understand others cultural beliefs and backgrounds can truly add benefit to each group established (Spielberger, 2004). GROUP BEHAVIOR AND MEMBERSHIP A group is a social system that involves interaction among members and a common group identity. When discussing group dynamics and how it correlates with intergroup relations, evaluating the conflicts, social categorization, and cultural differences; it is also important to evaluate the fundamental behaviors of group processes as a whole. Groups have a sense of we-ness that helps them to identify themselves as belonging to a certain entity. A group is an important part of sociological concept since it plays such a complex part in everyday life. Group membership is part of an individuals social identity. It is a key element of social control over individuals social pressures towards having to conform. Especially when they can deviate risking their membership as a result of that risk. However, social consequences help establish an important understanding of social life as a whole. We live in a very physical and cognitive world and when discussing group membership and the social pressures, understanding the social influence and group behavior in group memberships is one of the most important keys to everyday life (Messick Mackie, 1989). There are several types of group environments that we encounter in a life time; from sports, school, work, family and peers. Every type of group contact comes with social influence and behaviors from each individual involved in the group setting. Individuals affect one another in several different ways depending on their experiences. Experiences that each individual has encountered in their lifetime; is the key tool in intergroup relations. It is what makes group behavior an important asset when discussing the theory behind intergroup contact and how they all in the end relate to one another. Ultimately, the individuals experiences, needs, social influences and relationships are what make up how individuals approach group membership. SUMMARY Intergroup relations are essentially determined by how people relate to one another as well as how they categorize others. Perceptions is what shapes individuals personal needs and values, and by the behavior between groups. This process intermingles and works in sync with each other. With this categorization of people in groups it can sometimes cause the intergroup bias and conflict among the group members or members outside of the group (Dovidio, April 21, 1990). However, with conflict and social categorization come goals to help implement positive group membership. Different groups and culture can help organize and produce efforts to achieve a mutually desired outcome; as long as conditions and discipline is applied. Being able to work together and understand everyones individual needs and goals will help establish a positive intergroup dynamic. Certain perceptions are developed toward a group member or members that are  involved in a negative or positive intergroup relation. Social categorization, stereotypes, intergroup bias, motivations, prejudices, and the functional relationship process within a group. These basic processes are the fundamental interpretations of intergroup relations and the dynamics that in turn produce a group membership that can successfully be achieved with hard work, understanding and the basic desires to work as a group and overcome the biasness that can take place.

Cancer :: essays research papers fc

I chose to do my report on cancer because it is a subject I want to learn about and because it can probably fit 5 pages. My bibliography is on the ending of the report, my teacher helped me with it because I didnt know how to do it. Cancer is the name for tumors that are malignant. Malignant tumors do not respond to body mechanisms that limit growing. Malignant tumors show a not normal cell structure the same functional specialized cells. Also cancer cells growing in laboratory tissue culture do not stop growing when they touch each other on a glass or other solid surface but grow in masses several layers deep they are said to lack contact inhibition.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Loss of contact inhibition accounts for two other characteristics of cancer cells invasiveness of surrounding tissues and metastasis spreading via the lymph system or blood to other tissues and organs. Cells are typically controlled by growth factors competence factors that stimulate cells to enter the beginning phase of cell replication and progression factors that insure completion of the replication cycle. The unrestricted growth rates of cells are due to the activation and lack of inhibition of oncogenes. They are cancer causing genes.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Cancer tissue that grows without limits competes with normal tissue for nutrients kills the normal cells by nutritional deprivation. Cancerous tissue also causes secondary effects with the symptoms of a malignant growth caused by the pressure of the growing tumor against surrounding tissue or the metastasis of cancer cells and their invasion of other organs. Cancers are graded as to degree of malignancy on a scale of one through four the distinction between even benign and malignant neoplasms is obscure. All organs and tissues are susceptible to cancer.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  A lot of human cancers may be caused or at least triggered by various chemical agents. Alkylating agents are thought to have a carcinogenic effect because they chemically alter the cell's nucleic acids. Nitrites common additives in processed meat react with amines in the stomach to form nitrosoamines which some authorities believe may be carcinogenic to humans. Other commonly occurring carcinogens are azo dyes, polycyclic hydrocarbons, and urethane. Certain carcinogens present occupational hazards. Asbestos particles once inhaled stay in the lung and act as an irritant. In the asbestos and construction industries workers have a high probability of developing a fatal cancer of the chest lining or abdominal lining 25 to 30 years after the initial inhalation of . Asbestos also has been linked to lung and colon cancers in exposed individuals. Oral cancer common in India is commonly attributed to the chewing of betel nuts. Although the apparently increasing incidence of some types of highly malignant

United States Agency for International Development Essay -- AIDS HIV F

United States Agency for International Development When the Department of Defense awarded Halliburton subsidiaries billions of dollars to rebuild Iraq in an uncompetitive bidding process, taxpayers and members of Congress alike cried foul. Liberals at Swarthmore College bemoaned the mixture of domestic business interests with foreign policy and reconstruction efforts. Initially, foreign companies were formally barred from the lucrative reconstruction projects. This spring, Halliburton delayed billing the DOD over $140 million under allegations of overcharging for military meals and energy supplies. Where the DOD controls reconstruction in Iraq, the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) controls foreign development aid. While the bloated and uncompetitive contracts to Halliburton attracted a hail of criticism, USAID emerges largely unscathed from criticism despite a legacy of brazenly self-interested and inefficient foreign aid policy. USAID balances two mandates: protecting American interests and promoting inter national development. Tied aid-- grants or loans which require consumption of the donor country’s goods and services-- is an obvious and insidious manifestation of this dual mandate. An examination of American aid policy, a colonial precedent to tied aid, and the experience of Egypt from 1974-1989 reveals how tied aid poisons and adulterates the practice of development. Tied aid: â€Å"Seductive† but â€Å"seriously wrong† (Hancock 61) Tied aid is not a win-win situation. A balance between domestic interests and foreign development restricts the full potential of foreign aid. Michael Maren’s The Road to Hell offers a scathing indictment of foreign aid infused with self-interest and laments how â€Å"the hum... ... Philip Publishers Ltd: United States, 2002. Campbell, Catherine. ‘Letting Them Die’: Why HIV/AIDS Intervention Programmes Fail. Indiana University Press: United States, 2000. Hancock, Graham. Lords of Poverty. First Atlantic Monthly Press: Great Britain, 1989. Maren, Michael. The Road to Hell: The Ravaging Effects of Foreign Aid and International Charity. The Free Press: New York, NY, 1997. Mitchell, Timothy. Rule of Experts: Egypt, Techno-Politics, Modernity. University of California Press: Berkeley and Los Angeles, California, 2002. Radelet, Steven. Challenging Foreign Aid: A Policymarker’s Guide to the Millennium Challenge Account. Kirby Lithographing Company: United States, 2003. Student Global AIDS Campaign (SGAC) website. http://www.fightglobalaids.org/files/phatfile/appropriationskit.doc USAID website. http://www.usaid.gov/about_usaid.

The Host Chapter 10: Turned

The electric bell rang, announcing another visitor to the convenience store. I started guiltily and ducked my head behind the shelf of goods we were examining. Stop acting like a criminal, Melanie advised. I'm not acting, I replied tersely. The palms of my hands felt cold under a thin sheen of sweat, though the small room was quite hot. The wide windows let in too much sun for the loud and laboring air-conditioning unit to keep up. Which one? I demanded. The bigger one, she told me. I grabbed the larger pack of the two available, a canvas sling that looked well able to hold more than I could carry. Then I walked around the corner to where the bottled water was shelved. We can carry three gallons, she decided. That gives us three days to find them. I took a deep breath, trying to tell myself that I wasn't going along with this. I was simply trying to get more coordinates from her, that was all. When I had the whole story, I would find someone-a different Seeker, maybe, one less repulsive than the one assigned to me-and pass the information along. I was just being thorough, I promised myself. My awkward attempt to lie to myself was so pathetic that Melanie didn't pay any attention to it, felt no worry at all. It must be too late for me, as the Seeker had warned. Maybe I should have taken the shuttle. Too late? I wish! Melanie grumbled. I can't make you do anything you don't want to do. I can't even raise my hand! Her thought was a moan of frustration. I looked down at my hand, resting against my thigh rather than reaching for the water as she wanted to do so badly. I could feel her impatience, her almost desperate desire to be on the move. On the run again, just as if my existence were no more than a short interruption, a wasted season now behind her. She gave the mental equivalent of a snort at that, and then she was back to business. C'mon, she urged me. Let's get going! It will be dark soon. With a sigh, I pulled the largest shrink-wrapped flat of water bottles from the shelf. It nearly hit the floor before I caught it against a lower shelf edge. My arms felt as though they'd popped halfway out of their sockets. â€Å"You're kidding me!† I exclaimed aloud. Shut up! â€Å"Excuse me?† a short, stooped man, the other customer, asked from the end of the aisle. â€Å"Uh-nothing,† I mumbled, not meeting his gaze. â€Å"This is heavier than I expected.† â€Å"Would you like some help?† he offered. â€Å"No, no,† I answered hastily. â€Å"I'll just take a smaller one.† He turned back to the selection of potato chips. No, you will not, Melanie assured me. I've carried heavier loads than this. You've let us get all soft, Wanderer, she added in irritation. Sorry, I responded absently, bemused by the fact that she had used my name for the first time. Lift with your legs. I struggled with the flat of water, wondering how far I could possibly be expected to carry it. I managed to get it to the front register, at least. With great relief, I edged its weight onto the counter. I put the bag on top of the water, and then added a box of granola bars, a roll of doughnuts, and a bag of chips from the closest display. Water is way more important than food in the desert, and we can only carry so much – I'm hungry, I interrupted. And these are light. It's your back, I guess, she said grudgingly, and then she ordered, Get a map. I placed the one she wanted, a topographical map of the county, on the counter with the rest. It was no more than a prop in her charade. The cashier, a white-haired man with a ready smile, scanned the bar codes. â€Å"Doing some hiking?† he asked pleasantly. â€Å"The mountain is very beautiful.† â€Å"The trailhead is just up that -† he said, starting to gesture. â€Å"I'll find it,† I promised quickly, pulling the heavy, badly balanced load back off the counter. â€Å"Head down before it gets dark, sweetie. You don't want to get lost.† â€Å"I will.† Melanie was thinking sulfurous thoughts about the kind old man. He was being nice. He's sincerely concerned about my welfare, I reminded her. You're all very creepy, she told me acidly. Didn't anyone ever tell you not to talk to strangers? I felt a deep tug of guilt as I answered. There are no strangers among my kind. I can't get used to not paying for things, she said, changing the subject. What's the point of scanning them? Inventory, of course. Is he supposed to remember everything we took when he needs to order more? Besides, what's the point of money when everyone is perfectly honest? I paused, feeling the guilt again so strongly that it was an actual pain. Everyone but me, of course. Melanie shied away from my feelings, worried by the depth of them, worried that I might change my mind. Instead she focused on her raging desire to be away from here, to be moving toward her objective. Her anxiety leaked through to me, and I walked faster. I carried the stack to the car and set it on the ground beside the passenger door. â€Å"Let me help you with that.† I jerked up to see the other man from the store, a plastic bag in his hand, standing beside me. â€Å"Ah†¦ thank you,† I finally managed, my pulse thudding behind my ears. We waited, Melanie tensed as if to run, while he lifted our acquisitions into the car. There's nothing to fear. He's being kind, too. She continued to watch him distrustfully. â€Å"Thank you,† I said again as he shut the door. â€Å"My pleasure.† He walked off to his own vehicle without a backward glance at us. I climbed into my seat and grabbed the bag of potato chips. Look at the map, she said. Wait till he's out of sight. No one is watching us, I promised her. But, with a sigh, I unfolded the map and ate with one hand. It was probably a good idea to have some sense of where we were headed. Where are we headed? I asked her. We've found the starting point, so what now? Look around, she commanded. If we can't see it here, we'll try the south side of the peak. See what? She placed the memorized image before me: a ragged zigzagging line, four tight switchbacks, the fifth point strangely blunt, like it was broken. Now I saw it as I should, a jagged range of four pointed mountain peaks with the broken-looking fifth†¦ I scanned the skyline, east to west across the northern horizon. It was so easy it felt false, as though I'd made the image up only after seeing the mountain silhouette that created the northeast line of the horizon. That's it, Melanie almost sang in her excitement. Let's go! She wanted me to be out of the car, on my feet, moving. I shook my head, bending over the map again. The mountain ridge was so far in the distance I couldn't guess at the miles between us and it. There was no way I was walking out of this parking lot and into the empty desert unless I had no other option. Let's be rational, I suggested, tracing my finger along a thin ribbon on the map, an unnamed road that connected to the freeway a few miles east and then continued in the general direction of the range. Sure, she agreed complacently. The faster the better. We found the unpaved road easily. It was just a pale scar of flat dirt through the sparse shrubbery, barely wide enough for one vehicle. I had a feeling that the road would be overgrown with lack of use in a different region-some place with more vital vegetation, unlike the desert plants that needed decades to recover from such a violation. There was a rusted chain stretched across the entrance, screwed into a wooden post on one end, looped loosely around another post at the other. I moved quickly, pulling the chain free and piling it at the base of the first post, hurrying back to my running car, hoping no one would pass and stop to offer me help. The highway stayed clear as I drove onto the dirt and then rushed back to refasten the chain. We both relaxed when the pavement disappeared behind us. I was glad that there was apparently no one left I would have to lie to, whether with words or silence. Alone, I felt less of a renegade. Melanie was perfectly at home here in the middle of nothing. She knew the names of all the spiny plants around us. She hummed their names to herself, greeting them like old friends. Creosote, ocotillo, cholla, prickly pear, mesquite†¦ Away from the highway, the trappings of civilization, the desert seemed to take on a new life for Melanie. Though she appreciated the speed of the jolting car-our vehicle didn't have the ground clearance necessary for this off-road trip, as the shocks reminded me with every pit in the dirt-she itched to be on her feet, loping through the safety of the baking desert. We would probably have to walk, and all too soon for my taste, but when that time came, I doubted it would satisfy her. I could feel the real desire beneath the surface. Freedom. To move her body to the familiar rhythm of her long stride with only her will for guidance. For a moment, I allowed myself to see the prison that was life without a body. To be carried inside but unable to influence the shape around you. To be trapped. To have no choices. I shuddered and refocused on the rough road, trying to stave off the mingled pity and horror. No other host had made me feel such guilt for what I was. Of course, none of the others had stuck around to complain about the situation. The sun was close to the tips of the western hills when we had our first disagreement. The long shadows created strange patterns across the road, making it hard to avoid the rocks and craters. There it is! Melanie crowed as we caught sight of another formation farther east: a smooth wave of rock, interrupted by a sudden spur that swung a thin, long finger out against the sky. She was all for turning immediately into the brush, no matter what that did to the car. Maybe we're supposed to go all the way to the first landmark, I pointed out. The little dirt road continued to wind in more or less the right direction, and I was terrified to leave it. How else would I find my way back to civilization? Wasn't I going back? I imagined the Seeker right at this moment, as the sun touched the dark, zigzagging line of the western horizon. What would she think when I didn't arrive in Tucson? A spasm of glee made me laugh out loud. Melanie also enjoyed the picture of the Seeker's furious irritation. How long would it take her to go back to San Diego to see if this had all been a ploy to get rid of her? And then what steps would she take when I wasn't there? When I wasn't anywhere? I just couldn't picture very clearly where I would be at that point. Look, a dry wash. It's wide enough for the car-let's follow it, Melanie insisted. I'm not sure we're supposed to go that way yet. It will be dark soon and we'll have to stop. You're wasting time! She was silently shouting in her frustration. Or saving time, if I'm right. Besides, it's my time, isn't it? She didn't answer in words. She seemed to stretch inside my mind, reaching back toward the convenient wash. I'm the one doing this, so I'm doing it my way. Melanie fumed wordlessly in response. Why don't you show me the rest of the lines? I suggested. We could see if anything is visible before night falls. No, she snapped. I'll do that part my way. You're being childish. Again she refused to answer. I continued toward the four sharp peaks, and she sulked. When the sun disappeared behind the hills, night washed across the landscape abruptly; one minute the desert was sunset orange, and then it was black. I slowed, my hand fumbling around the dashboard, searching for the switch for the headlights. Have you lost your mind? Melanie hissed. Do you have any idea how visible headlights would be out here? Someone is sure to see us. So what do we do now? Hope the seat reclines. I let the engine idle as I tried to think of options besides sleeping in the car, surrounded by the black emptiness of the desert night. Melanie waited patiently, knowing I would find none. This is crazy, you know, I told her, throwing the car into park and twisting the keys out of the ignition. The whole thing. There can't really be anyone out here. We won't find anything. And we're going to get hopelessly lost trying. I had an abstract sense of the physical danger in what we were planning-wandering out into the heat with no backup plan, no way to return. I knew Melanie understood the danger far more clearly, but she held the specifics back. She didn't respond to my accusations. None of these problems bothered her. I could see that she'd rather wander alone in the desert for the rest of her life than go back to the life I'd had before. Even without the threat of the Seeker, this was preferable to her. I leaned the seat back as far as it would go. It wasn't close to far enough for comfort. I doubted that I would be able to sleep, but there were so many things I wasn't allowing myself to think about that my mind was vacant and uninteresting. Melanie was silent, too. I closed my eyes, finding little difference between my lids and the moonless night, and drifted into unconsciousness with unexpected ease.

English 101 Argumentation Essay

The new smoke- free policy at Suny Orange has many students outraged. Student smokers are being shunned for their addiction and are now forced to walk to the parking lot during class breaks for their fix. Our society is out casting them, even though it’s still legal, available, and enjoyable for many. However, smoking on campus presents several problems to consider. Smoking is contagious. It spreads like wild fire from one person to the next. Students may find themselves being peer pressured to smoke because it’s ‘’the cool thing to do’’, or ‘’everyone is doing it’’.Especially since our economy is in a recession, many people are stressed out, and vulnerable. A group of people smoking around a non-smoker creates a bad environment for the non- smoker, and they may be influenced into smoking. It’s no mystery that cigarettes are extremely addictive. If a student caves to peer pressure just once, they could become a slave to the habit for the rest of their life. When I left my English 101 class the other day, I witnessed a 9 year old boy skateboarding up to a student who was smoking and the boy asked him if he could have a ‘’cigg’’.The student found him amusing and told him he shouldn’t be smoking but, not before handing him a cigarette. With the ban of smoking on campus, it will greatly reduce these situations from happening. Smokers tend to litter. Seeing a smoker flick a cigarette butt on the floor is an image that is all too familiar. With the amount of people who smoke today, it’s simply bound to cause a mess. A college setting shouldn’t be burdened with a dirty landscape. It’s very uncomfortable to walk to class surrounded by garbage. Also, the littering harms our environment.Birds, fish, flowers, and many critters are at risk. The cigarette butt still contains all the harmful chemicals that are toxic. They aren’t biodegradab le so they will build up very rapidly and animals may confuse them for food. In addition, each discarded cigarette butt possesses a potential fire. If a fire where to occur many people’s lives would be put into danger because of the overcrowding O. C. C. C faces. The butt just needs to land somewhere with a little dry vegetation then; with a soft wind, it will burst into flames and spread from building to building.Unfortunately, smokers don’t seem to take this threat very seriously. The smoke cigarettes emit into the air. It’s practically impossible to walk between buildings without inhaling a lungful of cigarette smoke; especially when smokers light up just outside doorways and force everyone who wants to enter to walk right by them. All the smokers seem to completely disregard the fact that other people don’t want to be indulging in their bad habits. These smokers aren’t just polluting the air outside, but the air indoors as well.The second someo ne open the door all the smoke rushes into the building. It’s irritating to have to breathe in these harmful chemicals. It’s an instant headache when a classmate reeking of smoke sits next to me. It also doesn’t help with studying either. While leaving school yesterday I was immersed into a cloud of cigarette smoke and I couldn’t stop coughing, my eyes began tearing and I was extremely uncomfortable. Students are forced to face situations like this on a daily basis, and sadly many have become accustomed to it.I’m still trying to wrap my head around why so many students are against the new smoke-free policy. It’s not like they are being stripped of their ability to smoke their cancer causing tobacco. It’s just not worth it to have them diminishing the college’s appeal, while hurting themselves, other students, our environment, and potentially our school. Maybe in the future the college will assign designated smoking areas which don’t affect other smoke-free students but, in the meantime there will be no smoking on college grounds.